Takeaways from Make it Stick: The Science of Successful Learning

Every few years, a book is published for a lay audience that reports major findings in cognitive psychology related to learning or what is sometimes called the science of learning. For those of us outside the discipline, they provide an accessible means of staying abreast of new findings as well as an opportunity to think of ways to make our teaching more effective. The trick of course, is translating general recommendations into specific pedagogical practices.

Here we will share the central findings of one such book we have found useful, Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel’s, Make it Stick: The Science of Successful Learning (The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014). We will present these as countering certain widely accepted myths about learning. We hope doing so will help you to design pedagogical strategies that promote learning that “sticks.”

Myth 1: Repeated exposure, easy activities, and efficient or speedy practices promote learning.

Fact: Retrieval practice improves knowledge and retention.

Common study strategies students adopt are rereading texts and reviewing notes. While doing so is relatively easy and may seem to be an efficient use of one’s time, partly because it is somewhat helpful, research shows that these are not effective learning strategies. They may increase familiarity with the text, but this only feels like mastery of the material (Brown et al., pp. 15-16).

Alternatively, on the principle that “if you know, then you can remember,” when learners adopt activities that employ active, effortful retrieval of course content, they will improve their retention of the material. The fact that recall strengthens knowledge has been called “the testing effect” (p. 28). Make it Stick recommends frequent, low-stakes quizzes and other activities that require active, effortful recall. Both teacher- and student-generated quizzes are effective, and the authors recommend students adopt a reading practice of generating possible test questions as they read and use these as a study aid. Other practices that require retrieval also help students retain the material. For instance, asking students to recall the main ideas from an assigned reading, from the last class meeting, or from a previous topic. When these are used in class, they have been correlated not only with improved retention, but also with better attendance, improved study practices, and decreased test anxiety.

Myth 2: Learning is best achieved when we focus on a single topic or activity, when we are “single-minded.”

Fact: Interleaving, or spaced, varied practice improves retention and knowledge.

“Cramming” for exams, writing a paper the night before it is due, and hastily completing assignments are all examples of “massed practice” whereby one focuses on a single topic or activity thinking it is an effective (or last resort) learning strategy (p. 63). Instructors contribute to these activities when we give assignments with short turn-around times, recommend that students carve out distinct times to study for classes, and don’t mix up classroom activities (e.g., giving the dreaded 75-minute, traditional lecture). Unfortunately, massed practice only contributes to the illusion of knowing (p. 82).

However, contrary to the belief that focused, single-minded practice is an effective learning strategy, Make it Stick reports that interleaving — spaced, varied practice — is significantly more effective (p. 65). Interleaving topics and types of activities over time is a type of spacing that engages long-term memory and improves consolidation of memory into knowledge. Moreover, it helps students develop the ability to discriminate between kinds of problems and the tools needed to solve them (pp. 53-54). And while it feels slower and ineffective, it improves mastery and retention. Even a slight delay on receiving feedback, for example reviewing the answers after a quiz instead of having an open-book quiz, interspersing reading questions or summaries, and switching between topics in a single study session improves retention.

Myth 3: Learning should be easy, and mistakes impede learning.

Fact: Certain “desirable difficulties” improve learning.

Students make poor choices and adopt poor study strategies when they aim for “the path of least resistance.” Rereading and cramming are in many ways easier than self-quizzing, summarizing, and spacing as learning activities. Students are not the only ones who choose the path of least resistance. Operating on the assumption that it is better to show students the correct solution to a problem rather than letting them make mistakes that might distract, confuse, or delay learning, teachers intercede prematurely, provide answers before students have engaged with the questions, and allowed students to avoid the sorts of difficulties that promote learning.

When students struggle with a problem, attempt solutions, fail, and try again, learning is improved (pp. 90-92). The effort required employing retrieval promotes consolidation — fixing ideas into long-term memory. Desirable difficulties slow down learning and may not feel as effective as other strategies, but they produce better results. For example, asking students to generate answers on a “fill-in-the-blank” quiz instead of giving a multiple-choice quiz requires students to use recall more effectively and it takes effort.

Myth 4: Reviewing, rereading, and highlighting are effective study strategies.

Fact: Elaboration, generation, and reflection are effective study strategies (pp. 207-209).

Students have a penchant for rereading and highlighting texts and reviewing notes; however, activities that employ elaboration, generation, and reflection invoke “desirable difficulties” and are more effective learning strategies (pp. 68-69). For example, elaborating a key idea by stating it in one’s own words is more effective than memorizing a definition. Likewise, generating possible answers, examples, analogies, or metaphors to expound and understand a concept is more effective than choosing from answers provided by the instructor. Reflecting on a reading or a class discussion, rather than reviewing notes, improves retention.

Myth 5: We are good judges of our own abilities.

Fact: Dunning-Krugger Effect: The least competent overestimate their competence the most (p. 121).

Make it Stick describes the prevalence of the “illusion of knowing” arising from ineffectual learning habits such as rereading and massed practice. Students believe they have mastered content, but they have only familiarized themselves with what the text says, and not with what it means. They have failed to make the connections required for knowledge. Moreover, the least competent students tend to overestimate their competence the most (pp. 121-124). Make it Stick warns that this is a potential drawback of the “student directed learning” that has become popular (p. 123). Without objective feedback and assessment, the illusion of knowing will prevail.

When students assess their learning using multiple, objective measures they can overcoming the illusion of knowing. Testing, especially low-stakes, frequent quizzing, peer instruction, and simulations improve accuracy in self-assessment. It is also beneficial for students to compare their understanding of the material with that of classmates’, the text, or feedback on exams and papers. Reflection on discrepancies between what they felt or believed they knew and what they actually knew will help them to calibrate their judgments (p. 130).

Myth 6: Students fall into different categories of learners distinguishable by learning styles and learn better when instruction is adapted to that style (p. 132).

Fact: While people may have different learning preferences, these preferences do not reflect learning (or instructional) styles.

For over a decade, researchers have known that the existence of learning styles is a myth and yet students report having been told by teachers that they have a particular learning style. What is likely occurring is that students feel comfortable listening to lectures (instead of taking notes) or looking at pictures or diagrams (instead of analyzing text) and this preference contributes to the illusion of knowing. What is easy, preferred, or familiar is not necessarily what promotes learning. For this reason, it is important for instructors to dispel myths about learning and teach students to use more effective strategies and help students develop different dimensions of intelligence. 

Myth 7: There are no cognitive differences between learners.

Fact: Structure builders and fluent readers learn better.

While learning preferences do not entail learning styles, this does not mean that there are no real, meaningful differences between learners. Research shows that students skilled at “structure building,” viz., seeing patterns, recognizing operating principles, generating rules, etc. are more effective learners (pp. 153-158). Fortunately, structure building can be improved with effortful practice. Instructional practices that promote structure building, therefore, improve learning.

Language fluency and reading ability also correlate with learning effectiveness (p. 141). And while some difficulties are desirable, those that impede reading are discouraged (p. 99). Certain neurological differences, such as dyslexia, can impede reading fluency but can be compensated for with specialized instruction. For this reason, instructors are advised to provide reading support for poor readers and to encourage students to seek out literacy specialists when necessary.

Myth 8: “A” students or “smart people” learn the most, the best, and the most easily.

Fact: Those who adopt a growth mindset are the most effective learners.

It is a prevailing myth that student who earn As are the most intelligent or that students who have learned the most earn the highest grades. Often students chose classes based because they believe they can earn “an easy A,” or students write off doing well in a course (or a major) because they believe they are not smart enough to succeed. Instead, it may be that the students who have adopted the best learning strategies, who adopt a growth mindset learn the most, and this may not be reflected in the grades they earn.

A growth mindset (pp. 179-183), described in Dweck’s book, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (Ballentine Books, 2008), is one that accepts that intelligence is malleable not fixed, adopts learning goals over performance goals, recognizes that learning takes effort, and embraces challenges. We can promote a growth mindset in our students when we support these beliefs, and reward effort and progress over set performance goals.

Compelling research supports the idea that different modes of intelligence, reflected in certain categories of abilities, can be more or less pronounced in individuals (Brown et al., pp. 146-148). For example, one student may have a facility for learning music while another is adept at reasoning. Still, it is important to convey to students that intelligence is malleable and can be improved with effort.

Four final myths to dispel: How Instructors can Make it Stick

It is a common refrain now that as instructors we must focus on learning more than on teaching. Part of what this means is to stay abreast of new findings in the science of learning and align our teaching activities to promote learning. Trends exemplifying this commitment over the last decade or two include pedagogy that promotes experiential and active learning and that which cultivates metacognition and self-regulation. Make it Stick demonstrates that there is more that we can do as instructors, and we can start by dispelling these myths:

Myth 1: Students do not need to know how learning works.

Myth 2: It’s students’ responsibility to learn how to study.

Myth 3: Instructors should do as much as they can to make learning easy.

Myth 4: Instructors need not explain why they use the instructional methods they use to students.

Contrary to these myths, the authors of Make it Stick recommend that teachers consider the following practices (pp. 225-229):

(1) Explain how learning works.

Learning takes effort and effort changes the brain. Easy strategies do not produce lasting knowledge. We are not the best judges of our own competence. Wrestling with problems, toying with ideas, and trial and error produce better results than memorizing solutions. Overcoming setbacks is an important part of learning. Adopting a growth mindset promotes learning.

(2) Teach student how to study.

Avoid rereading, massed practice, and cramming. Practice retrieval (quizzing and summarizing), and space and interleave topics and types of work. Use elaboration, generation, and reflection as study methods. Practice structure building, use objective measures for self-assessment, and use study tools (e.g., mnemonic devices, diagrams, flash cards) when possible.

• Create opportunities for learning (“desirable difficulties”).

Use frequent, low-stakes quizzes. Design assignments and activities that use generation, elaboration, and reflection. Interleave topics and types of activities.

• Be transparent about their pedagogical practices.

Explain to students why you are using the strategies you are using, that the difficulties you have created are desirable in that they promote learning, and that they can learn to be more effective learners when they adopt these practices themselves.

What myths about learning do your students cling to? What sorts of activities do you use to counter these myths and to promote learning that sticks?

Works Cited:

Brown, Peter C., et al. Make It Stick: the Science of Successful Learning. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014.

Dweck, Carol S. Mindset: the New Psychology of Success. Random House, 2016.

Renée Smith

Renée Smith is a professor of philosophy at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. She specializes in philosophy of mind, particularly on phenomenal consciousness and introspection, and philosophy pedagogy.

 

Edward Perez

Edward Perez, Jr. is a lecturer in philosophy at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. He specializes in metaphysics and philosophy of religion.