Representations of animals in traditional Chinese painting are among the oldest known motifs and are filled with rich symbolic implications. Animal paintings make animals a part of the harmonious existence of all living beings in the universe. To the Chinese, animals are more than merely beasts in nature; rather, they are living symbols with philosophical, historical, and metaphorical associations. This explains why in early Chinese painting animals are typically portrayed with distinct attitudes or in particular poses, for example, dragons emerging from the clouds, tigers roaring with the wind, cranes calling toward heaven, carp leaping above the waves, and minnows darting playfully among water weeds. Many of these early conceptual depictions of animals were directly linked to the ancient Chinese yin/yang cosmologies, Daoism, and Confucianism. Each animal provides unique insights into this rich and constantly evolving historical and cultural context. Here, I will use a few Chinese Song dynasty (960–1279) fish paintings for illustration.
By the 10th century, Chinese fish painting had already developed into a fully established and independent subject. It gained increasing popularity through a new aesthetic standard set by the rising scholar-elite and their influential participation in art. According to descriptions of lost paintings as well as those that have survived, the most prevalent Chinese fish painting themes that emerged during this time were Fish and Weeds (Yuzaotu) and Fish at Play (Xiyutu). Both depict minnows swimming joyfully in water. The concepts underlying both themes can be traced to two ancient Chinese philosophical classics, respectively, The Book of Odes (Shijing), the oldest collection of Chinese poetry (11th to 7th centuries BCE) compiled by Confucius, and Zhuangzi, the Daoist text written by Zhuiangzu (ca. 369–286 BCE). The Fish and Weeds theme was directly inspired by a chapter of this name in The Book of Odes, in which the image of fish swimming among weeds was used as a metaphor for the people living under a wise ruler. The second theme, Fish at Play, focuses on fish swimming joyfully in water. The concept underlying this theme can be traced to a debate between the Daoist philosophers Zhuangzi and Huizi on “the joy of fish” as they stood on the bank of the Hao River.
Zhuangzi: See how the minnows [tiaoyu] come out and dart around where they please! That’s what fish really enjoy!
Huizi: You are not a fish, how do you know what fish enjoy?
Zhuangzi: You are not I—so how do you know I don’t know what fish enjoy?
Huizi: I am not you, so I certainly don’t know what you know. On the other hand, you’re certainly not a fish—so that still proves you don’t know what fish enjoy!
Zhuangzi: Let’s go back to your original question, please. You asked me how I know what fish enjoy—so you already knew I knew it when you asked the question. I know it by standing here beside the Hao.
While this dialogue may sound more like an exercise of logic between the two Daoist masters, the image of minnows swimming joyfully in water subsequently became synonymous with Zhuangzi’s philosophical emphasis on spiritual freedom. Zhuangzi’s contemplation on the “joy of fish” was extremely important for early Chinese fish painting. It triggered a new trend of illustrating swimming fish in water, as seen in both Fish and Weeds and Fish at Play, instead of the dead “kitchen fish” practiced by many earlier painters. Moreover, the direct association with Zhuangzi’s “joy of fish” is indicated by the type of fish portrayed—the tiaoyu, a long, slender member of the minnow family. The tiaoyu is mentioned specifically in the text of Zhuangzi quoted above. It is therefore not surprising that most of the extant fish paintings attributed to Song or earlier artists all portray this particular kind of fish.
These paintings also follow, in various degrees, a consistent set of aesthetic values, techniques, and expressions in representing the lively and graceful movements of the slender minnows in water. The same depiction and aesthetic values can also be found in the opening section of the early 12th century handscroll, Fish Swimming Amid Falling Flowers.
Here, the artist enhances the playful mood of the swimming minnows by adding a branch of blooming peach blossoms, and portrays the minnows chasing after the fallen flower petals. This seasonal touch colored the “joy of fish” ideology with both poetic sentiment and the passage of time. The lyrical transformation also reveals the high level of sophistication of Song fish painting, not only in its content, but also its technique, which captured the realistic features of both the darting movements of the fish themselves and the elusive nature of the aquatic environs.
Thus, as early as the Song dynasty (960–1279), the realistic depiction of the aquatic world of fish had already served to express the ideals of the two leading Chinese philosophies: Confucianism, which emphasizes achieving social harmony through a hierarchical and orderly human relationship, and Daoism, which seeks natural harmony by following one’s innate nature and the natural order of the universe. On the one hand, the image of Swimming Fish refers to the “joy of fish” concept associated with the Daoist philosophical text of Zhuangzi, symbolizing the leisurely spiritual freedom of an untethered life. On the other hand, the depiction of Fish and Weeds readily reminds one of the Confucian based interpretation of “the unbound joy of life under a wise ruler.”
The “joy of fish” concept continued to play a role in later Chinese fish painting. Even when the leaping carp replaced the minnows and became the dominant fish painting theme after the 12th century, the “joy of fish” motif continued to be used. It served either to enrich the narration, or to complement the new political message expressing the Chinese people’s indignation and defiance under the Mongolian ruled Yuan dynasty (1279-1368).
Although the “joy of fish” depiction of the Song dynasty represents only a chapter in the early stage of Chinese fish painting’s evolving symbolic language, its conceptual depiction and rich contents provides viewers insight into the philosophy and contemplative moods of the Song scholar elite. While the darting movements of the minnow evoke the seasonal moods of the Yangzi River region, the “joy of fish” ideology and its association with the “unbound joy of the free and unburdened life of a great man” led viewers to a “world of joy,” offering a reprieve from the stressful burdens and responsibilities of daily life.
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This essay was originally published in Animals: A History (ed. Peter Adamson and G. Fay Edwards), a volume of the Oxford Philosophical Concepts series (ed. Christia Mercer), and is republished here with permission. The header image comes from the website of the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art. It is a painting titled “Fish and Water Grasses” (Zao Yu Tu).
Hou-mei Sung
Hou-mei Sung is the curator of Asian art at the Cincinnati Art Museum. Since receiving her PhD from Case Western Reserve University, she has held positions in museum and academic fields in Asia and the United States.
